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Writing · Reference sheet
Et al. meaning, dashes, i.e. vs e.g. and the other writing mechanics, in plain English
What does et al. mean, and how do APA 7 and MLA 9 use it? Plus the hyphen, en dash and em dash, i.e. and e.g., comma splices, run-ons, title case and dangling modifiers, each with the rule, an example and a memory trick. Then try some practice questions. Free, no sign-up needed.
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1 · Et al. meaning
Et al. means “and others”
It is short for the Latin et alii. Write it with a period after al and none after et. Pick a style and a number of authors to see where APA 7 and MLA 9 use it and where they do not.
Style
Authors on the work
In parentheses
(Alvarez et al., 2022)
In a sentence
Alvarez et al. (2022)
Reference list (author part)
Alvarez, M., Chen, L., & Okafor, T. (2022).
Three or more authors: the first author plus et al., starting with the first citation. The reference list entry names the authors.
2 · The seven topics
The rule, an example and a memory trick for each
Et al., the three dashes, i.e. and e.g., comma splices, run-ons, title case and dangling modifiers. For the sound-alike and look-alike word pairs, see the confused words reference; for paper layout and citations in full, the APA and MLA format guide.
Et al. is short for the Latin et alii, “and others.” It stands in for the rest of a list of authors after the first name.
Write it as et al. with a space between the words, no period after et and a period after al.
APA 7: for a work with three or more authors, give the first author’s surname plus et al. in every in-text citation, starting with the first. With two authors, name both.
APA 7 reference list: the entry names the authors (up to 20); et al. is for in-text citations. The builder above shows both.
MLA 9: for three or more authors, give the first author followed by et al., in the works-cited entry and in the parenthetical citation. With two authors, name both.
MLA Style Center advice for running prose: keep et al. for the works-cited list and parenthetical citations; in a sentence, name the first author followed by “and others.”
Correct: (Alvarez et al., 2022) is APA 7 for a work by Alvarez, Chen and Okafor.
Correct: (Alvarez et al. 14) is MLA 9 for the same work, page 14.
Not correct: Alvarez et. al. (2022) reported the same result.Why not: There is no period after et.
Memory trick: Think “and the others”: the first author, then et al. for everyone else.
Hyphen, en dash and em dash
The hyphen joins, the en dash marks a range, and the em dash breaks into a sentence.
Hyphen (-): joins words into one idea, as in a money-saving plan, and joins the written-out numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine.
En dash (–), about as wide as the letter n: shows a range, such as pages 112–118 or the Monday–Friday schedule. APA uses it for page ranges; MLA uses a hyphen for page spans.
Em dash (—), about as wide as the letter m and roughly twice as long as a hyphen: sets off an interruption or an aside, like a stronger pair of commas or parentheses. Use it sparingly.
Do not swap them: a hyphen is not a stand-in for an em dash, and word processors usually turn two typed hyphens into a dash.
Correct: The new intake form is a time-saving change.
Correct: The lab is open Monday–Friday, 8–5.
Correct: The schedule—after two revisions—is final.
Not correct: There are thirty three seats.Why not: A written-out number from 21 to 99 takes a hyphen: thirty-three.
Memory trick: Hyphen = joins. En dash = “to” (a range). Em dash = a break, and the longest of the three.
i.e. vs e.g.
i.e. means “that is” and restates; e.g. means “for example” and gives a sample.
i.e. (id est, “that is”) restates the idea in other words, so what follows should be exactly equal to what came before. If you list items after it, list all of them.
e.g. (exempli gratia, “for example”) introduces one or two examples from a longer set. Do not end the list with etc.
Both usually sit inside parentheses, with a comma after the abbreviation.
This is the same rule as the i.e. vs e.g. entry in our confused words reference.
Correct: Submit the draft by the deadline (i.e., 5 p.m. Friday).
Correct: Bring something to write with (e.g., a pen).
Not correct: Bring something to write with (e.g., a pen, etc.).Why not: e.g. already says the list is only a sample, so etc. is redundant.
Memory trick: i.e. is “in essence,” an equals sign. e.g. is “example given.”
Comma splices
A comma splice joins two complete sentences with only a comma.
A complete sentence (an independent clause) can stand alone. Two of them cannot be joined by a comma alone.
Fix it with a period, with a semicolon, or with a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Or make one side a dependent clause with a word such as because, although or when.
Not correct: The report is due Friday, I need the data today.Why not: Two complete sentences joined by only a comma.
Correct: The report is due Friday. I need the data today.
Correct: The report is due Friday; I need the data today.
Correct: The report is due Friday, so I need the data today.
Correct: Because the report is due Friday, I need the data today.
Memory trick: Cover one side with your hand. If each side could be its own sentence, the comma alone is not enough.
Run-on sentences
A run-on (or fused sentence) runs two complete sentences together with no punctuation at all.
Run-on describes a compound sentence that is not punctuated correctly. A fused sentence has no punctuation between the two complete sentences; a comma splice has only a comma.
Length is not the issue. A long sentence that is correctly punctuated is not a run-on.
Fix a fused sentence with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction. Splitting it into two sentences is often the quickest fix.
Not correct: The scanner jammed I called the front desk.Why not: Two complete sentences, no punctuation between them.
Correct: The scanner jammed. I called the front desk.
Correct: The scanner jammed, so I called the front desk.
Memory trick: Read it aloud. Where your voice stops, a period, semicolon or comma plus conjunction belongs.
Title case
Capitalize the major words and any word of four letters or more; keep short conjunctions, short prepositions and articles lowercase.
APA title case: capitalize nouns, verbs (including is and be), adjectives, adverbs and pronouns, and any word of four letters or more (with, from, between).
Lowercase the minor words of three letters or fewer: articles (a, an, the), short conjunctions (and, but, or) and short prepositions (in, on, of, for).
Always capitalize the first word of the title and of a subtitle, even a minor word.
In a hyphenated major word, capitalize both parts: Self-Report, not Self-report.
Other style guides draw the line differently, and APA reference entries use sentence case for titles of stand-alone works. Follow the guide your instructor or employer names.
Correct: Notes on the State of Adult Learning
Correct: Writing Clearly for a Busy Reader
Not correct: Notes On The State Of Adult LearningWhy not: On, the and of are minor words and stay lowercase.
Memory trick: Short and small stays small: a, an, the, and, but, or and the little prepositions. Everything else, and every first word, gets a capital.
Dangling modifiers
A dangling modifier is a phrase whose doer is missing from the sentence, so it seems to describe the wrong thing.
An opening phrase such as “After reading the memo” needs the person who read it to be the subject right after the comma.
Fix 1: name the doer as the subject of the main clause. Fix 2: turn the phrase into a full clause with its own subject.
Passive voice often causes the problem, because it hides the doer. Name the doer and use active voice.
Not correct: After reading the memo, the meeting seemed unnecessary.Why not: The meeting did not read the memo.
Correct: After reading the memo, Dana found the meeting unnecessary.
Correct: After Dana read the memo, the meeting seemed unnecessary.
Memory trick: Ask who is doing the action in the opening phrase. That person or thing must be the next subject.
3 · Practice questions
16 practice questions
One question at a time, with the answer explained right away. Your result is free: no sign-up needed.
Question 1 of 16
A work has three authors: Alvarez, Chen and Okafor. In APA 7, how do you cite it in parentheses?
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A one-page cheat sheet. One line per topic (7 in all): et al., the three dashes, i.e. and e.g., comma splices, run-ons, title case and dangling modifiers. It prints on its own, without the rest of the page.
16 more practice questions, every answer explained.
Every rule on this page follows these university writing-center and style-guide pages, in our own words. The examples, the authors in the builder and the practice questions are our own and fictional. When a style guide at work or school says otherwise, follow it.
Et al. is short for the Latin et alii, “and others.” In a citation it stands for the authors after the first one. Write it with a period after al and no period after et.
For an in-text citation of a work with three or more authors, give the first author’s surname plus et al. from the very first citation: (Alvarez et al., 2022). A work with two authors names both. The reference list names the authors (up to 20) instead of using et al.
For three or more authors, give the first author followed by et al., both in the works-cited entry and in the parenthetical citation: (Alvarez et al. 14). Two authors are both named. In a sentence, the MLA Style Center suggests naming the first author followed by “and others.”
A hyphen (-) joins words and the written-out numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. An en dash (–) marks a range, such as pages 112–118. An em dash (—) is the longest and sets off a break or aside in a sentence.
i.e. means that is: it restates or pins down exactly what you just said, so what follows should equal what came before. e.g. means for example: it gives a sample, not the whole list. Both usually sit in parentheses with a comma after them. It is the same rule as in our confused words reference.
A comma splice joins two complete sentences with only a comma. Fix it with a period, a semicolon, a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), or by making one side a dependent clause with a word like because.
No. A run-on is a compound sentence that is not punctuated correctly, such as two complete sentences with nothing between them. A long sentence that is correctly punctuated is not a run-on.
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